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Java classes contain fields and methods. A field is like a C++ data member, and a method is like a C++ member function. Each field and method has an access level: private: accessible only in this class (package): accessible only in this package protected: accessible only in this package and in all subclasses of this [...]

The fact that arrays and classes are really pointers in Java can lead to some problems. Here is a simple assignment that causes aliasing: int [] A = new int [4]; Int [] B = new int [2]; This is depicted as below: Now, when we say: A[0] = 5; We get the following: Now [...]

In C++, when you declare a variable whose type is a class, storage is allocated for an object of that class, and the class’s constructor function is called to initialize that instance of the class. In Java, you are really declaring a pointer to a class object; no storage is allocated for the class object, [...]

Java was developed at Sun in the early 1990s and is based on C++. It looks very similar to C++ but it is significantly simplified as compared to C++. That is why Professor Feldman says that Java is C++–. It supports only OOP and has eliminated multiple inheritance, pointers, structs, enum types, operator overloading, goto [...]

Predicates Predicates are declarations of relations or rules. They are just like function prototypes (declaration). A predicate may have zero or more arguments. Example of predicates are: man(symbol) family() a_new_predicate (integer, char) Clauses Clauses are definition(s) of Predicate sentence or phrase. It has two types: rules and facts. A rule is a function definition. It [...]

Recursion is the main tool used for iteration. In fact, if you don’t know recursion, you won’t be able to go too far with LISP. There is a limit to the depth of the recursion, and it depends on the version of LISP. Following is an example of a recursive program in LISP. We shall [...]

Functional Programming Paradigm and LISP Functional programming is a style of programming that emphasizes the evaluation of expressions, rather than execution of commands. The expressions in these languages are formed by using functions to combine basic values. A functional language is a language that supports and encourages programming in a functional style. LISP is a [...]

Ada provides tools and constructs for extending types through inheritance. In many object oriented languages the concept of a class is overloaded. It is both the unit of encapsulation and a type definition. Ada separates these two concepts. Packages are used for encapsulation and Tagged types are used to define extensible types. Tagged Type A [...]

Block statement in Ada is very similar to a block in C. It can be used anywhere and has the following structure: declare — declare section optional declarations begin statements exception — exception section optional handlers end; Return statement The return statement can only be used in subprograms and has the following form: return;                         — [...]

SNOBOL 4 supports two types of functions: (a) built-in function which are known as primitive functions and (b) user defined functions. Primitive Functions There are a number of primitive functions but we shall look at only a few. These include SIZE and REPLACE functions. The SIZE function returns the size of a string and the [...]

LANGUAGE LEVEL PRODUCTIVITY AVERAGE PER STAFF MONTH ————————–         —————————————————————— 1 – 3                                         5 to 10 Function Points 4 – 8                                         10 to 20 Function Points 9 – 15                                       16 to 23 Function Points 16 – 23                                     15 to 30 Function Points 24 – 55                                     30 to [...]

You may recall that software configuration management (SCM) is one of the five KPA required for an organization to be at CMM level 2. That means, according to SEI, effective project management is not possible without having a proper SCM function in place. The basic idea behind SCM is to manage and control change. As [...]

Once we have the task network, we are now ready to prepare a schedule for the project. For this we use two techniques known as: Program evaluation and review techniques (PERT) Critical Path Method (CPM) These are quantitative tools that allow the software planner to determine the critical path – the chain of tasks that [...]

Everyone asks this question: how do I identify the problem? The answer is measure your process. Measurement helps in identification of the problem as well as in determining the effectiveness of the remedy. Measurement is fundamental for providing mechanisms for objective evaluation of any process or activity. According to Lord Kelvin: When you can measure [...]

The Unadjusted Function Point count is multiplied by an adjustment factor called the Value Adjustment Factor (VAF). This factor considers the system’s technical and operational characteristics and is calculated by answering 14 questions. The factors are: 1. DATA COMMUNICATIONS The data and control information used in the application are sent or received over communication facilities. [...]

A file type referenced is An internal logical file read or maintained by a transactional function or An external interface file read by a transactional function DET Definition A data element type is a unique user recognizable, non-repeated field. EI Complexity and Contribution Rules This section defines FTR and DET rules used to determine the [...]

This section defines the rules that apply when counting EIs, EOs and EQs. Elementary Process Identification Rules To identify elementary processes, look for user activities occurring in the application. All of the following counting rules must apply for the process to be identified as an elementary process. The process is the smallest unit of activity [...]

Processing logic is defined as requirements specifically requested by the user to complete an elementary process. Those requirements may include the following actions: 1.Validations are performed. For example, when adding a new employee to an organization, the employee process has processing logic that validates the information being added. 2.Mathematical formulas and calculations are performed. For [...]

These steps are elaborated in the following subsections. The terms and definitions are the ones used by IFPUG and have been taken directly from the IFPUG Function Point Counting Practices Manual (CPM) Release 4.1. The following can therefore be treated as an abridged version of the IFPUG CPM Release 4.1. Determining the type of count [...]

Out of these 5, the two most widely used metrics for the measurement of software size are FP and LOC. LOC metric suffer from the following shortcomings: There are a number of questions regarding the definition for lines of code. These include: Whether to count physical line or logical lines? What type of lines should [...]

The Product: In order to develop an estimate and plan for the project, the scope of the problem must be established. This includes context, information objectives, and function and performance requirements. The estimate and plan is then developed by decomposing the problem and establishing a functional partitioning. The Process The next step is to decide [...]

There are many possible organizational structures. In order to identify the most suitable structure, the following factors must be considered: the difficulty of the problem to be solved the size of the resultant program(s) in lines of code or function points the time that the team will stay together (team lifetime) the degree to which [...]

Line Drawing Techniques 5.1 Line A line, or straight line, is, roughly speaking, an (infinitely) thin, (infinitely) long, straight geometrical object, i.e. a curve that is long and straight. Given two points, in Euclidean geometry, one can always find exactly one line that passes through the two points; this line provides the shortest connection between [...]

Undoing Changes The following chapters explain how to use the TuneUpRescueCenter tool to undo changes that you made with TuneUpUtilities. You can also use TuneUpRescueCenter to perform system recoveries, i.e. undo changes that you did not make with TuneUpUtilities. Undoing Changes -Introduction Since you can make comprehensive changes and edits to your system with TuneUpUtilities, [...]

Repairs Introduction It can be fun to change the Windows icons and to make a few personal settings here and there. However, it is possible that the desired icons are suddenly not displayed correctly or are even swapped. Therefore TuneUp Styler provides two repair functions. Here’s how it works: To launch the TuneUpStyler tool, in [...]

File System Introduction Windows assigns a default icon to every drive, every folder, every Start menu folder and every entry in Favorites. Here’s how it works: 1.        To launch the TuneUpStyler tool, in the Start Center under CustomizeWindows, select All functions followed by PersonalizeWindows appearance. 2.        In the navigation bar in the left-hand window area, [...]

Changing Windows Appearance The following chapters explain how to personalize the appearance of Windows with the TuneUpStyler tool: Changing Windows Appearance -Introduction TuneUpStyler lets you modify the appearance of numerous elements in Windows at your discretion. You’ll be pleasantly surprised at how many changes you can make here. How to Change Windows Appearance 1.        To [...]

Gain Disk Space The chapters that follow explain how to useTuneUpUtilities to free up valuable space on your hard drives. Gain Disk Space Using the Areas Suggested for Cleanup -Introduction TuneUpUtilities searches for many types of potentially unnecessary files that can be deleted without causing problems. It then shows you how much space can be [...]

DTE-DCE Interface a.      There are 4 basic functional units involved in communication of data: –A DTE and DCE on one end –A DTE and DCE on the other end b.      DTE: Any device that is a source of or destination of digital data Ü DCE: Any device that transmits/receives signal through network b.                   The DTE [...]

EFFICIENCY An unbiased estimator is defined to be efficient if the variance of its sampling distribution is smaller than that of the sampling distribution of any other unbiased estimator of the same parameter. In other words, suppose that there are two unbiased estimators T1 and T2 of the same parameterθ.Then, the estimator T1 will be [...]