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THE ROLE OF HYPNOSIS IN SPORT:

Like imagery, hypnosis is a cognitive-behavioral process that has both a cognitive function and a motivational function. In a cognitive sense, hypnosis is used to restructure the way athletes think about themselves and about the way they execute and learn new sport skills. In a motivational sense, hypnosis is used to modify emotions, reduce anxiety, increase or decreases arousal, and increase effort. In the initial induction phase, hypnotism is physiologically identical to progressive relaxation, autogenic training, and meditation. All of these intervention strategies are associated with reductions in oxygen consumption, respiration rate, and heart rate. Perhaps because it is poorly understood, hypnosis is not a widely utilized intervention strategy in sport. Nideffer (1992) is one of the few sport psychologists who advocate its use on a broad scale. A dated but well-known application of hypnosis took place before the first heavyweight boxing match between Muhammad Ali and Ken Norton in 1973. Norton reportedly hired a professional hypnotist to help him bolster his self-confidence and reduce prematch anxiety. Norton won the match in a stunning upset, effectively calling attention to hypnosis as a viable intervention strategy. While there may be some potential risks associated with the indiscriminate use of hypnosis by an untrained therapist, most concerns about hypnosis are unfounded. It is probably fair to say that hypnosis is more clouded by myths and misconceptions than any other form of psychological intervention. Our discussion of hypnosis in sport will focus upon the following topics. The first two topics will be discussed in this lecture, and the remaining in the next lecture.

• Defining hypnosis
• Theories of hypnosis
• The hypnotic trait issue
• Facts about hypnosis
• Achieving the hypnotic trance
• Self-hypnosis
• Improving effective use of hypnosis
• Hypnosis and athletic performance.

Defining Hypnosis

The term hypnosis comes from Hypnos, the Greek god of sleep (Kalat, 1999), even though it has long been known that hypnosis is not related to sleep. Hypnosis could be defined as “The uncritical acceptance of a suggestion” or “An induced temporary condition of being, a state that differs mentally and physiologically from a person’s normal state of being”.

Theories of Hypnosis

We will briefly discuss three theories of hypnosis. The first two re represent extreme positions on the issue of the existence of a hypnotic state, while the third represents a compromise position that has been embraced by many psychologists. The theories to be discussed are:

1. Social-cognitive Theory

2. Hypnosis as an Altered State of Consciousness

3. Neodissociation Theory

1. Social-Cognitive Theory

Social-cognitivists believe that subjects carry out hypnotic behaviors because they have positive attitudes, motivations, and expectations that lead to a willingness to think and imagine using themes suggested by the hypnotist. Therapists who are of the social-cognitive theory school of thought believe in the use of hypnotism as a method of increasing a client’s willingness to accept suggestions, but they do not believe that this state of uncritical acceptance of suggestions represents an altered state of consciousness.

2. Hypnosis as an Altered State of Consciousness

At the other extreme are psychologists who believe that hypnotized individuals enter into an altered state of consciousness known as trance. It is believed that the trance-like state is different from other nonhypnotically induced states such as daydreaming and relaxation. While in the hypnotic state or trance, the individual is susceptible to suggestions made by the hypnotist.

3. Neodissociation Theory

Neodissociation theory explains hypnosis without suggesting that the hypnotic trance is responsible for the phenomenon associated with hypnosis. Daydreaming and relaxation are considered by many theorists to be examples of the altered state of consciousness that we experience every day. We drive to work each day with our minds focused on anything but the drive, then suddenly we arrive at our destination with little recall of the actual drive. This is a form of hypnosis, or what is referred to as dissociation. Neodissociation theory is based on two assumptions:

A. There is a central control system that performs planning and monitoring functions in the brain.

B. Beneath the central control system there are relatively autonomous subordinate cognitive-behavioral systems. In the hypnotic trance state, however, the two systems are dissociated from each other. In the hypnotic trance state the two systems are dissociated from each other. Some individuals will be more responsive to hypnosis and hypnotic suggestions than others. Through proper preparation, most individuals can benefit from hypnosis, but not all.

References

Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. (Fifth Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Lavallec. D., Kremer, J., Moran, A., & Williams. M. (2004) Sports Psychology: Contemporary Themes. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers