EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY:
Sport PsychologyEXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY:
Documentation of the psychological benefits of regular exercise has led to the inclusion of “lack of exercise” as a fourth factor for heart disease that can be modified or controlled by the individual. The other three risk factors are smoking, high blood pressure and elevated cholesterol. Among other things, regular physical exercise helps lower cholesterol, decreases the percentage of body fat, mediates the effects of diabetes, reduces weight, and lowers blood pressure. Over the next four lectures we will be looking at exercise psychology in great detail. Will be discussing the following topics related to exercise psychology:
- Psychological benefits of exercise
- Theoretical explanations for the relationship between exercise and improved mental health
- Exercise adherence and determinants
- Theories of exercise behavior
- Fitness as a moderator of life stress
- The immune system, cancer, HIV and exercise
- Social physique anxiety
- Exercise addiction
- Eating disorders
Psychological Benefits of Exercise
A large body of literature has been amassed that supports the position that regular exercise leads to improved psychological affect. Improved psychological affect is manifested in the form of a reduction in negative affect (e.g., anxiety and depression) and an increase in positive affect (e.g., self-efficacy, vigor, well- being). Exercise in many cases is as effective as psychotherapy and antidepressant drugs in treating emotional disorder. These conclusions are supported by several narrative reviews and meta-analysis (Craft & Landers, 1998), Hale, Koch and Raglin, 2000; Van Landuyt, Ekkekakis, Hall & Petruzzello, 2000).
Type of exercises
Studies cited to support the relationship between exercise and psychological affect benefits have used both acute and chronic exercises. Acute exercise refers to exercise that is of short duration (e.g., thirty minutes).Chronic exercise refers to long-term exercise (e.g., twelve months). Aerobics exercise refers to exercise that is accomplished at an exercise intensity that allows for the intake of sufficient oxygen to maintain continuous exercise. Anaerobic exercise is one in which the exerciser does not get enough oxygen to maintain continuous exercise. Anaerobic exercise requires the athlete to breathe hard following exercise in order to replenish stored energy. After a bout of anaerobic exercise, the athlete will need period to time to “catch her breath.” This is not generally necessary with aerobic exercises. Synchronized swimming is an example of anaerobic exercise. Resistance exercise usually involves the use of weights or weight training to provide resistance to the muscles, for example, weight lifting.
Special Populations
We turn our attention now to the beneficial psychological effects of regular physical activity on special populations of people. Special populations can be divided into three categories; clinical patients, children and elderly, and disabled individuals. Clinical Patients The benefits of regular physical activity are even greater for individuals suffering from psychological disorders than for normal individuals. Using a meta-analysis procedure, it is observed that:
1. Both aerobic and nonaerobic exercises were effective in reducing clinical depression.
2. More depressed individuals benefit more from exercise.
3. Exercise was as beneficial as psychotherapy and drug therapy for reducing depression.
4. Long-term exercise programs are more effective than short-term programs for reducing
depression in the clinically ill. In addition to treating depression and anxiety, exercise is also an effective treatment for clinical patients suffering from schizophrenia. Results of the exercise program showed psychological improvements in the form of reduced auditory hallucinations and better sleep patterns. In another investigation, Martinsen, Raglin, Hofart, and Friis (1998) demonstrated that patients suffering from severe panic disorder could safely undergo vigorous exercise without suffering panic attacks.
Children and Elderly:
Research has also shown the beneficial effects of exercise on children and older adults. Children’s exercise behaviors are greatly uninfluenced by their parents’ attitudes and behaviors regarding exercise. Factors that can influence a child’s decision to be physically active include parents’ beliefs, the children’s perception of their own competence, and, to come extent their goal orientation. Regarding exercise and the elderly, research shows that participation in aerobic exercise selectively preserves some cognitive functioning that normally declines with age. So, for the elderly, there is not only the benefit of improved fitness and improved psychological affect associated with exercise, but also the prospect of slowing the decline of some cognitive functions. Exercise in the elderly is associated with the preservation of certain aspects of memory and spatial relationships and reduction in confusion, tension, and anger.
Disabled Individuals:
Finally, it is important to mention that the beneficial psychological effects of regular exercise extend to physically challenged individuals as well. For example, wheelchair sport participants have been observed to enjoy greater psychological benefits from physical activity than wheelchair nonparticipants in sport.
Moderating Variables:
In addition, research suggests that there are a number of variables that may moderate or facilitate the effectiveness of regular exercise on metal well-being.
1. Time of Day
Research suggests that time of day is not an important factor relative to psychological benefits derived from exercise. You get just as much affective benefit from running in the morning as from doing so at midday or in the evening.
2. Mode of Exercise
The psychological benefits of acute aerobic exercise appear to the same, regardless of the mode of exercise. Cox et al. (2000) observed no difference in anxiety between treadmill and stepper exercisers following a thirty-minute bout of exercise.
3. Music
Research suggests that listening to music during exercise can increase positive affect in the exerciser.
4. Attentional Strategy
Relative to attentional strategy, there is evidence that a dissociative (external) attentional strategy may result in greater psychological benefits (Masters & Ogles, 1998b). Runners who are asked to listen to their own heart rates during exercise (internal focus) exhibit greater emotional stress than runner who dissociate during exercise.
5. Social Environment
The social environment associated with exercise has an effect upon psychological benefits of exercise. Research results show increased benefits for the socially enriched environment in the form of revitalization and self-efficacy.
References
Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. (Fifth Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Lavallec. D., Kremer, J., Moran, A., & Williams. M. (2004) Sports Psychology: Contemporary Themes. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers
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