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ALTERNATIVES TO INVERTED-U THEORY:

In the previous lecture we learned that inverted-U theory is the primary theory used by sport psychologists to explain the relationship between anxiety and performance. However, sports psychologists have turned to other more complex theories to explain this relationship. It is believed by many psychologists that the inverted-U theory is a simple theory that does not capture or explain the complexities of the anxiety-performance relationship. In this lecture we look at alternatives to inverted-U theory. There are five anxiety-performance theories that we will discuss:

1. Martins’ Multidimensional Anxiety Theory

2. Fazey and Hardy’s Catastrophe Theory,

3. Hanin’s Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning Theory

4. Jones’ Directionality Theory

5. Apter’s Reversal Theory

1. Martens’ Multidimensional Anxiety Theory

Multidimensional Anxiety Theory is based upon the notion that anxiety is multidimensional in nature, composed of a cognitive anxiety component and a somatic anxiety component. Multidimensional theory specifically hypothesizes two things (1) a negative linear relationship exists between cognitive state anxiety and athletic performance, and (2) An inverted-U relationship exits between somatic anxiety and performance. According to the mulitidimentional theory, in the case of cognitive state anxiety, as anxiety increase, athletic performance begins to deteriorate. But, in the case of somatic state anxiety, as anxiety increase athletic performance increases to a certain level, and after a certain level athletic performace begins to drop. Somatic state anxiety forms an inverted U-shape.

2. Fazey and Hardy’s Catastrophe Theory

The basic assumptions of the Inverted-U theory are that

(a) small incremental increases in arousal result in small incremental increases or decreases in performance, and

(b) moderate arousal results in optimal performance.

The Catastrophe Theory questions both these notions. The basic variables of the model includes cognitive anxiety, physiological arousal (not somatic anxiety), and performance. The theory suggests that the relationship between physiological arousal and athletic performance is believed to take the form of the inverted-U when cognitive anxiety is low, but to take a very different form when cognitive anxiety increases. At a high level of cognitive anxiety, performance increases gradually as in the inverted-U, but at some points as psychological arousal continues to rise, performance will show a catastrophic drop-off. In other words, if cognitive state anxiety is high, an increase in physiological arousal can result in a sudden and large decrement in athletic performance. The basic tenets of Fazey and Hardy’s catastrophe model were tested by Hardy and Parfitt (1991) and Hardy Parfitt, and Pates (1994), and both of these studies provided strong support for the basic tenets of catastrophe theory.

3. Hanin’s Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) Theory

The individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF) was developed by Yuri Hanin (1989). This theory also questions the two basic assumptions of inverted-U theory, but more specifically the notion that a moderate level of state anxiety results in best performance. IZOF theory postulates that the level of optimal state anxiety best for one athlete may be different from that optimal for the next athlete.

Thus, for some athletes, the optimal level of state anxiety was very low, while for others it was very high. In IZOF theory an optimal level of precompetitive state anxiety is identified and a narrow band of anxiety functioning created around it. The band of optimal functioning is generally considered to be the optimal level of anxiety. If the athlete’s anxiety level stays within the IZOF, he will perform well, but if the level is outside the band, his performance will deteriorate. Individual zone of optimal theory is a viable theory for explaining the anxiety-performance relationship. An athlete will perform best if his state anxiety is within a certain zone of optimal functioning. Strong support for the concept of an individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF) has been reported by Prapavessis and Grove (1991), Raglin and Turner (1993), and Turner and Raglin (1996). In each of the case, the results favored IZOF theory.

4. Jones’ Directionality Theory

Jones (1991) posits that the absolute intensity of anxiety was not nearly so important as the athlete’s perception of whether his anxiety intensity was facilitative or debilitative relative to a subsequent competitive event. In simpler words, an athlete’s perception of how intensity affects performance is more important than the intensity itself. Jones labeled this facilitative or debilitative perception the direction component of anxiety. Therefore, according to the directional theory, the important question is not whether an athlete has a high or low level of anxiety, but whether he perceives that this specific level will help him perform better. The application of directionality theory in sport is illustrated in two studies reported by Hanton and Jones (1999a, 1999b).

5. Apter’s Reversal Theory

Reversal theory, as proposed by Apter (1982), has characteristics associated with both drive and inverted-U theory. it is as much a theory of personality as it is a theory of arousal. Individuals are described as being either telic or paratelic dominant. Telic-dominant individuals have a goal-directed orientation towards life, while paratelic-dominant individuals are fun-loving and have a “here-andnow” orientation. While in a telic frame of mind, the athlete seeks to reduce the level of arousal in order to bring about a state of relaxation. While in a paratelic frame of mind, the athlete seeks to increase arousal in order to increase excitement. The individual’s ability to switch back and forth between telic and paratelic modes is referred to as psychological reversal.

References

Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. (Fifth Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Lavallec. D., Kremer, J., Moran, A., & Williams. M. (2004) Sports Psychology: Contemporary Themes. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers